Caste, known as jati, or endogamous groups in local parlance, has been a system of social relations central to the Hindu society for centuries. Its central notions are hierarchy based on ideas of pollution and inclusion-exclusion.
As an ascriptive system, the caste system is highly inflexible. The four varnas, which are considered to be in a way the progenitors of the caste system, are separated from and related to each other by a set of laws based on two cardinal principles: division of labour and synthesis.
In history, as number of new castes or sub-castes emerged as a result of rise of new crafts and vocations. With increased occupational differentiation the caste system became more differentiated and this is responsible for a proliferation of jatis.
Synthesis refers to the organic view of castes and focuses on the functional interdependence of castes and jatis.
However, due to the multi-dimensionality and complexity of the caste system, one finds it difficult to give a precise definition of caste system. The two prominent views on the caste system are:
- The structural view, based on the principle of stratification, and
- Caste as a cultural system understood in terms of purity and pollution and notions of hierarchy, segregation and coroprateness.
In terms of understanding and effecting structural changes, caste system has to be understood in structural terms. In which case, the relations between upper and lower castes, between landowning and landless castes, between jajman and kamin castes assume paramount importance.
The points of reference then are: domination/subjugation, surplus/exploitation and privileges/deprivations as witnessed in real life.
It is in this context that the situation of Dalits and Scheduled Castes is examined.
Scheduled Castes
Within the caste system, those castes which occupied the lowest positions in the caste hierarchy and pursued supposedly defiling occupations, remaining low and suppressed for ages, were listed as the ‘untouchable’ castes. Thechnically, they were outside the four fold varna scheme of caste hierarchy. They were imputed with maximum disadvantages and worked as agriculture labour. Some of them have now got titles to land during the land reforms in Uttar Pradesh. Yet, they constitute the largest categories of landless.
Dusadhs
The Dusadhs are traditionally palanquin bearers. Today they are agriculture labourers who claim descent from Arjun. They do not accept water form Dhobi, Chamar and Muslims whom they consider lower in caste hierarchy. This is reflected even in villages where they stay closer to the higher caste hamlets than for instance the Chamars who are ecologically segretated.
Khatik
The name Khatik is probably derived form Sanskrit word khattika meaning a butcher or hunter. Actually Khatiks are a mixed caste of butchers and vegetable sellers. In the villages the traditional occupation of Khatiks is rearing and butchering pigs and goats. With the erosion of traditional occupation many Khatik families are now agricultural labours.
Pasi
It is believed that the first Pasi male originated form the sewat of Parasuram when he had a heated exchange with Lord Rama’s brother Laxman. How the Pasis became untouchable is another legend connected with Ramayana. After creating Pasis, Parasuram bade them to live in the forest and spend rest of their lives there. Incidentally, the first wild animals they killed for food was a pig and since they relished it and started eating it they became unclean and untouchable.
Traditionally, the Pasis were toddy trappers. Their traditional occupation has been eroded seriously and they are now mostly agricultural labourers. They have their own deities like the Sokha Sivnath, Longia Bari, Larha Dak, Fulang Baba and Purkhan.
Dhobis
The Dhobis are traditional washermen. Based on this washing dirt is considered unclean, the Dhobis became untouchable. They claim their descent from Rajputs.
Many of them still practice their traditional occupation especially in town areas. In the rural areas many of them are now agricultural labourers.
Doms
The Doms are traditionally associated with death. They were responsible for burning the dead bodies and for the upkeep of burning ghats. Their number is very small and many have given up their occupation for wage labour.
For social stratification, the Scheduled Castes, however, did not form a homogenous stratum. Before being scheduled, these castes were classified as ‘exterior or depressed’ on the basis of a set of social restrictions. In the 1931 census these restrictions were listed as:
‘inability to serve the Brahmins; inability to be served by barbers, water carriers, tailors, etc., who serve the caste Hindus, inability to serve water to caste Hindus, inability to enter Hindu temples, inability to use public conveniences as roads, ferries, wells or schools and inability to dissociate from despised occupations’.
The nomenclature of ‘exterior castes’ was changed to Scheduled Castes with the passage of Government of India Act of 1935.
Traditionally, these castes were integrated into the economic system of the upper castes in an extremely asymmetrical manner so that a high degree of integration also meant a higher measure of economic dependence, exploitation and servitude.
Harijan
The term Harijan was coined by NC Mehta and adopted by Gandhiji to mean untouchable whom he considered the children of God and implying that they needed special protective legislations. These have been granted to them under special provision of the Constitution. However, ascriptive status cannot be changed simply because of constitutional provisions. As has been witnessed in the last 50 years, in spite of proactive legislations, the conditions of Scheduled Castes has not changed much less.
Dalits
The term Dalits is taken to mean these untouchables or Harijans. Being the lowest in social hierarchy they continue to be dependent on the upper caste and classes and are exploited in every conceivable way. Nearly 90 per cent (1991 estimates) of the Scheduled Caste community members live in rural areas where they continue to suffer because they work under the command of dominant castes and landlords.
They have recourse to minimum sustenance needs and their miseries are further compounded by concentration of landholdings in favour of upper or the twice born ‘sawarna castes’ as a consequence of the feudal structures and failure of land reforms. These factors in combination have forced them to migrate to other areas for wage employment.
Among the Dalits the following castes have been identified in the operational area:
Chamars
The traditional occupation of Chamars was removal of dead animals, flaying, tanning and stitching footwear. In short, they were identified with the traditionally unclean occupation of leather work. Technological shift has seriously eroded into their worm. Numerically the most dominant group, they are now involved in wage labour.
Mushars
Mushars draw their name from Musa which means rat. They are found scattered in eastern Uttar Pradesh, though their greater concentration is in neighbouring Bihar.
Traditionally they were hunters and rat trappers. They are almost completely landless, and today they are landless labourers inhabiting and working on the farms of higher castes.
Partly due to the nature of their traditional occupation, they have been viewed with suspicion by the caste Hindus who largely consider them thieves and criminals. In Ghazipur their population is 500. Some families are found in the operational area.